Dating Issues
It can be challenging to determine the exact date of a coin in numismatics. When considering a timeframe of a single design that might span years, and the general lack of specific dates incorporated onto the coinage, it can sometimes be extraordinarily difficult to confidently assess when a particular coin was issued. While it is possible to analyse coin hordes, stylistic elements, and specific markers to establish a general timeframe, it usually only determines terminus post quem and terminus ante quem, the earliest and final possible dates of a coin. [1]
It could be argued, in the grand scheme, what difference does identifying a coin’s mint within a specific year make on a timeline that spans thousands? I would argue that it makes an incredible amount of difference. When looking at periods of significant upheaval, such as the Late Roman Republic, being able to accurately trace coinage allows for a greater understanding of the political machinations of the major players vying for power.
RRC 511/4a is typically thought to have been minted in Sicily, between 42 and 40 BC. However, there is very compelling evidence which would discount this, placing the actual issuing of this coin much later, in around 36 to 35 BC, and its minting in Asia Minor.
The obverse of RRC 511/4a features the Pharos of Messana, a lighthouse, as well as a war galley and an aquila, an eagle standard which denoted a Roman legion, and the reverse features the monstrous figure of Scylla wielding an aphlaston. Under its current dating, the naval victory being referenced in this coin would be the Battle of Rhegium against Octavian’s forces led by Quintus Salvidienus Rufus in 42 BC. This culminated in a victory for Sextus in the straits of Messana, near Scyllaeum. The imagery on RRC 511/4a allows for the easy assumption that it refers to the Battle of Rhegium, as the depiction of the Pharos of Messana and the presence of Scylla would seem to suggest that particular naval conflict. However, this was not the only encounter between Sextus Pompeius’ and Octavian’s forces in the straits of Messana. All of the major naval engagements between the two involved that stretch of sea. Therefore, it is not possible to rule out any of the other battles offhand.
The other major justification for the original dates of the coin being minted between 42 and 40 BC are the inscriptions of Sextus’ title present on the coin: PRAEF CLAS ET ORAE MARIT EX SC, Praefectus classis et orae maritimae (Prefect of the fleet and the sea coast). Sextus was granted the position of prefect of the fleet and the sea coast and commander of the Roman fleet by the Senate in April of 43 BC. However, by August of the same year, Sextus was outlawed under Pedian law and proscribed by Octavian. Therefore, Sextus had lost any right to use this title. Considering that any potential naval victory that RRC 511/4a makes a reference to would have occurred after Sextus had lost this title, the inclusion of this title cannot be the basis for any accurate dating. It is clear that Sextus did not stop using the title he technically had no rights to. It is possible that Sextus continued to use the title as it was politically valuable and added legitimacy to his claims for power. It could have, perhaps, been because Sextus did not recognise Octavian’s authority, and therefore refused to give up the title he had been granted by the Roman Senate. [2]
Similarly, the inscription found on the reverse of RRC 511/4a, MAG PIVS IMP ITER, Magnus Pius Imperator Iterum, allows for some detailed analysis over the possible date. Iterum, ‘once more’, suggests that Sextus was granted the title of imperator for a second time. There is some minimal evidence to suggest that after his victory over Q. Salvidienus Rufus in 42 BC, Sextus was referred to imperator for the second time. However, there is little compelling evidence to support this, as it cannot be found with any regularity on inscriptions of Sextus Pompeius at this time. Rather, there is far stronger evidence to suggest that RRC 511/4a was minted in 36 to 35 BC; an inscription in ancient Lilybaeum confirms Sextus’ adoption of the title imperator iterum in 36 BC (ILS 8891=ILLRP 462). Sextus was likely given this title for the second time in response to his victory over Octavian’s forces at the Battle of Mylae and Tauromenium in 36 BC. [3]
Another argument against the dating of RRC 511/4a taking place between 42 and 40 BC is that of Sextus Pompeius’ defeat at the Battle of Naulochus in September of 36 BC. After losing the final naval conflict with Octavian’s fleet, Sextus fled from Sicily to Mitylene in Asia Minor; within a year he would be captured and executed on Caesarean orders. On the surface it would seem unlikely that Sextus would have had the time or resources to begin minting money again in this new location. However, it is clear that Sextus was beginning to rebuild his fleet and forces, as well as bribing opponents around him, after he fled Southern Italy in 36 BC. Therefore, Sextus clearly did have the resources and impetus to begin minting coinage again. [4]
…from which [Sextus] obtained large supplies of money, and his strength was augmented in all respects that exceeded his expectations.
App. B. Civ. 5.139
This brings in the final piece of evidence which confirms the later date of RRC 511/4a for being minted in 36 to 35 BC. The depiction of the lighthouse, identified as the Pharos of Messana, is a direct reference to Sextus’ headquarters in Sicily. However, also present on the top of this lighthouse is a statue of Neptune. During the Roman period, lighthouses would commonly be visually depicted in two ways: those with statues on the top, and those without. Lighthouses without statues on the top were focused in the west, in locations such as Ostia. Lighthouses with statues on the top were solely found in the east, such as Alexandria. As there is a war galley in front of the lighthouse, as well as the presence of Scylla on the reverse, it is clear that this coin references a naval conflict that took place in Southern Italy. However, the design of the lighthouse confirms that the minting of the coin did not take place there. Therefore, RRC 511/4a must have been minted in 36 to 35 BC, in Mitylene in Asia Minor, during Sextus’ attempt to rebuild and reconsolidate his power. [5]
It might seem a bit trivial to quibble over the dating of a single coin of a man who is long dead. However, it is extremely important to understand that even after a resounding defeat and flight from Sicily, Sextus Pompeius was still able to exert significant political influence. In the final year of his life, Sextus was in the process of rebuilding his fleet and his armies to reengage with his rival, Octavian. For that matter, Sextus’ use of iconography to reinforces his divine connections as well as his military prowess and technical supremacy, work to reaffirm Sextus’ reputation. By using elements of familial pietas, divinity, and military supremacy, Sextus Pompeius emphasised his legitimacy as a major player in vying for power at the end of the Roman Republic.